The political economy of social justice
The political economy of social justice
Dr.R.Murali
Head of the Department of Philosophy and the Center for Philosophical Research
The Madura College (Autonomous), Madurai -625 011.
"Never doubt that a small group of thoughtful, committed citizens can
change the world. In fact, the only thing that ever has. "- Margaret Mead
I
Social justice refers to conceptions of justice applied to all society. It is based on the idea of a just society which gives individuals and groups fair treatment and equitable sharing of benefits of society. Consequently, ethics has many areas to exploit. The economy is an important area Ethics. According to Aristotle, the economy is a concrete expression of a fundamental virtue ethics, based on justice. This concept of justice has been described as distributive justice or a fair share for everyone. In other words, the concept of social justice has been accepted as a basis rooted in ethics or common sense and economics can not be separated from that situation. Similarly, the economy and politics are inseparable. Social justice is both a philosophical problem and an important issue in political economy.
Arguably, all Everyone wants to live in a just society, but different political ideologies have different conceptions of what a company "just" is. The term "justice social "tends to be used by the ideologies that they believe today's society is very unfair – and they are generally left-wing ideologies in favor of wider use of democracy and redistribution of income, a more egalitarian and more, or a mixed economy model or a non-market economy. The right has its own conception social justice, but believes it is usually best achieved by covering the meritocracy, the operation of a free market, and promoting philoanthropy and charity. To the right and left tend to agree on the importance of the rule of law relating to human rights, and some form of social safety net (even if the left supported more than the right).
Social justice is also a concept that some use to describe the movement towards a socially just world. In this context, social justice is based on the concepts of human rights and equality. Therefore, a very broad definition of social justice is that "social justice reflects how human rights manifested in the daily lives of people at all levels of society. "It can be defined as work towards a world where all members of society, regardless of their origin, are fundamental human rights and equal opportunities to access benefits of their society.
Many philosophers like Thomas Aquinas, Locke, Bentham, Mill, Kant and others discuss the problem of social justice in their work. In the twentieth century, the notion of social justice has been widely associated with the political philosopher John Rawls (1921-2002), based on the ideas of Bentham and Mill's utilitarianism, social contract ideas of Locke, and Kant's categorical imperative ideas. His first statement was made in A Theory of Justice (1971) which proposed that "each person possesses an inviolability founded on justice that even the welfare of society as a whole can not override. For this reason, justice denies that the loss of freedom for some is made right for a greater good shared by others, "a proposal that echoes Kant ethics in the development of good moral justice in absolutist terms. His views are definitely included in Political Liberalism (1993), where company is regarded as a fair system of cooperation over time from one generation to another. (The p. 14).
Parallel to these philosophers go further and argue that social justice is nothing but the redistribution of wealth, power and status the individual, community and the good society. Others argue that the government (or those with a significant amount of energy) the responsibility for ensuring the basic quality of life for all its citizens.
Therefore, it is clear that the economic policy of the company are closely related to social justice. Also it is true that today, throughout the world of many advocates of social justice are in a state of despair. Some of them fear that social justice is a lost cause in a globalized economy.
II
Liberalism: social justice, economic freedom
Liberal capitalism, super-economical, all models worldwide is promoted and practiced throughout the world today has been scrutinized severely criticized by economists, not only by the economic downturn, but also and especially for the value systems of destabilization in the country and became responsible for social injustice around the world.
Friedrich Hayek, Nobel Prize winner in economics and a leading advocate of the century XX, liberal capitalism, once stated that "… nothing has done more to destroy the legal safeguards of personal liberty that the effort after this mirage social justice. "I do not spend much time reading a yellowing of the history of struggles for social justice. What, however, take into account is the overwhelming presumption that social justice and the freedoms we in modern capitalism are not only different, but antagonistic.
Sam Gindin in his article on "anti-capitalism and social justice field" very critical of Hayek's position. He said what many others have obscured Hayek and confronts directly to his credit, is that inequality is not an unfortunate aberration under capitalism, but an inevitable result and a condition essential for successful economic performance. Capitalism is what is clear today as it was always a social system based on class and competition. Such a society guarantees not only the inequality of results, but Since the results of inequality are transmitted through the institution of the family and Divisions space of uneven capitalist development, inequality is reproduced from generation to generation and interregional levels. This leads to inequality of opportunity decisive.
Therefore, it is not surprising that the most brilliant advocates of capitalism, so try to move the field of debate legitimacy of capitalism to the notions of distribution and equality of opportunities for social justice, to notions of individual freedom and market freedoms in particular. Gindin observes that the individual is placed in the center of a world in which the concept of community or group is limited to the state-liberalism old enemy. Liberalism is limit state power not only by the state of law, freedom of expression and association legislatures, and elected officials, but also and especially property rights, the inviolability of contracts in the exchange market and the protection of the private spaces of the family to enjoy the fruits of goods and labor.
There is no denying the charm of this practical structure. Civil and political rights and economic dynamism and unprecedented opportunities for better standards of life depends on it. However, the reality of class inequality behind this structure could not be so easily put aside. The rest contradictions of liberal justice the fact that the market economy creates a market society, and that private property is not and never has been a relationship between people and things, but a relationship between the historically., the creation of markets and private property are not as liberal mythology tends to present a matter of what the state set aside as natural inclinations of man to develop. Private property, in particular, emerged with the support of an absolutist state controlled interest that the states received unconditional property rights that had been constrained by traditional obligations. These interests, supported by the State, were expropriated once common land, accessible to the community for personal use only. The need to replicate this type of private property rights and privileges that implies a need strong permanent active state, and the partial class. Today, the drive to deepen and extend these rights is in the form of neoliberal globalization.
inequalities of capitalism, it is essential to highlight, not just a little more and others less, but rather that capitalism means economic freedom guaranteed represents different types of freedoms to different people. For a minority, economic revolves around the power of freedom to organize production and accumulation for the rest, the freedom to sell their production potential in a labor market and, on the basis of this, the exercise of personal choice in the markets consumption. It accumulates in the minority of their freedom includes the power to the work of others and therefore their "individuality." Liberty / to sell their productive potential and to exercise some choice in consumer markets, by contrast, is based on a dependency on those who provide jobs and products available for consumption.
The neoliberal response to neglect social boundaries that have historically acquired redefined liberalism in practice the postwar period. Neoliberalism appointed a strategy designed to put capitalism on a clear path of development is still incomplete, the acceleration of the unit to commodify, and therefore open all aspects of life on benefits and social discipline imposed by the benefits. It was not just a question of expansion space market (the "globalization"), but the deepening of market penetration in a social space, personal or cultural, which had managed to escape subordination to capitalist calculation. Because democracy tends to recreate the protections against anti-social logic of markets, the implementation of neoliberalism has also demanded a reduction in one way or another, effective democracy.
It is pertinent to note some important criticisms of neoliberalism into their own supporters. Joseph Stiglitz, former World Bank economist and Nobel Prize winner in economics in 2001, is an ardent advocate of globalization itself, said that "today's globalization is not working for many poor people in the world. It does not work for a large part of the environment. It is not work for the stability of the economy global. "wrote on the basis of this observation:" What I saw changed radically My vision of globalization and development … I have seen firsthand the devastating effect that globalization can have on developing countries. "Stiglitz complains that the West" through the IMF and WTO – has been seriously mismanaged the process of privatization, liberalization and stabilization and that following his advice to the Third World and former communist countries are actually worse than before.
George Soros, another architect of globalization is that "we have global markets but we can not build a global society regardless of moral considerations "He said that the U.S. is the main obstacle to international cooperation today. Strongly opposes any agreement impair international sovereignty. The list is long, including the International Criminal Court, the Landmine Treaty, Kyoto, most ILO Conventions and many other conventions such as the arcane law of the Sea Convention and the Convention on Biological Biodiversity. Hence he said that the quest for hegemony in direct conflict with the vision of a global open society. U.S. wants to be a stationary engine.
It is not simply eliminate poverty, but While the reduction of inequalities. The first is impossible to resolve without resolving the second. The real problem, again, is not absolute resources but the social distance and different degrees of control over their own resources. And this is true in any society.
In this context, Habermas is in addition to socio-cultural dimension political economy. Habermas does tie economic globalization and global terrorism, but does not believe that the latter is the ultimate manifestation a clash of cultures. Instead Habermas regards international terrorism as a reaction based on the gross economic inequities perpetrated by globalization. In Accordingly, Habermas regards international terrorism as a result of a communication problem and as equivalent to an external threat to modernity.
This gives the liberal sociologist Richard Münch afraid that we will face the depletion of nonrenewable resources, cultural alienation on a massive scale, and social unrest if we can not politically Fencing in markets that are, so to speak, escape the stress and weakens the nation-states.
As Habermas writes in 1997, globalization threatens to dissolve the social glue that binds national enterprises, hitherto fragmented. In Germany, questions of glue nation, national identity and culture, with the search for a folder of "social, have become the challenges of globalization can the unification process national. Anti-globalization, as elsewhere, is to protect the local identity, economy and culture in both the EU and the most powerful American empire. "
For Amartya Sen, the central question of the thesis is not globalization, not the use of the market as an institution, but inequality overall balance of institutional arrangements – which produces very unequal sharing of the benefits of globalization. He said the problem is not just whether the poor also gain something of globalization, but if they get a fair and a fair chance. There is an urgent need to reform institutional arrangements – In addition to national – to overcome errors of omission and those of the Commission, which tends to give poor people around the world, limited opportunities. Globalization deserves a reasoned defense, but also we must reform.
III
Globalization: The Path to injustice
Globalization has not only affected all aspects of human life, but also the influence of social institutions, in large measure. It works unequal and unfair. The neo-liberal, inequality namely, liberalization, privatization and globalization has exacerbated inequalities in society. The small minority World population has more resources and more people are attacked in poverty.
Before the merger, 1.3 billion people in extreme poor in the world who survive on less than $ 1 per day. There was an additional 1.5 billion poor living on $ 2 per day. This means that 2.8 million dollars, almost half of the global family lives on $ 2 a day or less (Sider, 2002). But now things have gone worse.
Many have no access to drinking water (1 mil.) And without access to improved sanitation (2 billion) .. These poor public health conditions are responsible for approximately 34,000 children die every day from diarrhea and other easily preventable diseases (Sider, 2002).
In response to the question "What is globalization? "Susan George, head of the Observatory of Globalization Paris, associate director of the Transnational Institute in Amsterdam, and author of nine books, said there is already a world government – which is not democratic, a group of people can change the future others who are not involved in making decisions. Its aim is to put all human activities in the market, including education, culture and health. Globalization is responsible for pushing up of wealth among countries and within countries. Since 1980, each country has experienced an increase in inequality. 85% of people live in countries where inequalities are increasing and this includes China, Russia, Eastern Europe and Western Europe and the United States and at the same time, deepen the gap between North and South.
He cited the example the inverted champagne showing the first 20% of humanity capture 82% of the wealth, while 80% below the graph must be consistent with 1.3% global wealth. These inequalities are becoming more extreme. There are now 485 billionaires in the world who control the equivalent of half the world's wealth. And only three of these billionaires control wealth is equal to domestic production in 48 countries.
These inequalities have dramatic consequences. The series of recent financial crises have been caused by institutional investors in the world. The "Law on the electronic herd" all at the same time, example, someone said that Thailand is not very good or Mexico and all ran to the door, at the same time. Then comes financial crisis and the SI to give us what the country needs to do. She insisted that "the rules that define whether killing ordinary people." For example, in Mexico after the financial crisis of 1995 28.000 small enterprises have failed because they could not keep the interest rate imposed. Half of Mexico is now living below the poverty line. In Indonesia, after the crisis financial, 20 million people no longer believed in the middle class have been violently pushed into poverty. In Russia, 4% of people who once considered very poor, but now, as there are no rules, the "market" is supposed to do everything that 50% live in poverty. Through social health facilities and education have been reduced adjustments due to structural changes. Now only a leftist ideology in the world after the collapse of communism.
About are global system administrators? The power behind the throne are the large multinational companies. They do not want to rule directly if they do so through the Bank Bank, IMF and WTO. These companies also support the UN. Kofi Annan, signed the Global Agreement of 50 multinationals, many of which have terrible rights record human and environmental damage.
The system works well for 10% of world population, but not for someone else. The political question central of our time is changing. He was one of the hierarchy, which are on the ladder – a king or a beggar who has been the fundamental principle of political organization. For 100 years, or if the central political question was – Who will receive the largest share of the pie? The elements of both – the hierarchy and the share of the pie – Even today. But the new question is: "Who has the right to survive" and "Who has not? Now there are hundreds of millions people around the world does not contribute to the market as producers or consumers. Do you have the right to survive?
The first thing people have to understand is that the current system is not the only option. God never told Moses that globalization should dominate the world. There are many possibilities.
IV
Melt: Lessons
Sudden return of the world economic stage has shaken everyone. It Surprisingly, until the next day, after the country where native North American or Europe or Africa or Asia held in turn increasing rate of economic growth better access to information technology and increasing its population suddenly traumatized by the possibility of getting swept under the current regression and depression deeper than in 1930 and the first financial meltdown in the United States and Europe. "The global financial system is in deep crisis without precedent. Banks and central governments around the world face many complex challenges and fascinating. There were no serious disturbances in the money markets. Stock markets around the world have been falling and it was the extreme risk aversion in all financial markets. Politicians around the world reacts aggressive, radical and innovative measures to restore confidence and spreading stability into the system. "(The Hindu editorial October 27.2008).
A major impact of this financial crisis Krugman's assessment is that the advanced countries are likely to hit near zero growth next year with the expanding global economy only 3 percent. Fears that this will turn into the background and prolonged as in the 1930s.
As the financial crisis continues to hit economies Worldwide, the rescue plans of various governments worldwide is almost U.S. $ 3 a trillion approximately three times the size of the Indian economy. The administration of the United Kingdom in the first week of October arrived with a rescue plan 500 billion pounds of mammoth primarily to consolidate the wealth of the banking sector country. Russia has also adopted a series of measures estimated at 86 billion dollars to bail out U.S. banks hit by the credit crisis. The EU pumping 1.7 million euros for the subscription of the banks. In addition, a handful of European countries have also already announced packages a similar amount in their efforts troubled financial institutions. In fact, most of the proposed world's central banks to flood the system with money so there is a total collapse occur.
Describing the situation observed Krugman: "All the signs of an economic crisis that will be nasty, brutal and long term."
Japan's prime minister also announced that Tar ¥ 27,000,000,000,000 stimulus package on October 30 for the second-largest economy, including credits and loans to help small businesses, a reduction in highway tolls and the money to pay for homes. He said the financial outlook is severe and that the crisis Global Financial is almost certain to affect Japan's real economy.
The charges and the impact of so-called financial tsunami not only cuts in the world, but much more is cut in all aspects of life and especially the poorest and most depressed of society in most every corner of the world which even the wealthiest nations like the United States and Europe. According to the Director General of the International Labour Organization (ILO), Juan Somavia, in an article he wrote for The Times of India (October 25.2008) "The impact of the crisis in life, working conditions and hopes of millions of people will be strong and systemic. Stop the crisis must go beyond the financial system. This is not simply a crisis on Wall Street, there is a crisis in the streets.
To the talk about the expenses, noted the results of a recent estimate of the impact made by the ILO. The estimate of world unemployment could increase by 20 million frameworks of unemployed in the world for the first time. People working in sectors such as construction, automotive, tourism, finance, services and real estate will the most affected first. What is more worrying that, according to this estimate by the ILO, Juan Somavia cited the number of working poor living on less than a dollar a day could rise by $ 40 million and those living the trailer dollars could increase by more than 100 million dollars. It can be vital importance to bear in mind that the job losses do not occur only in the cities, industry and services will only shock Wall Street elite, even go to rural India and to the house of small-scale industries and crafts and small other professions. According to reports (Times of India October 24, 2008), thousands of workers qualified in two small towns, 100000 Moradabad (UP) and 25000 in Panipat (Haryana) have been laid off after orders from their global markets for most U.S. and Europe this month dry. In Moradabad, craftsman skilled in the art of the ancient craft of brass European and American showrooms are pulling cycle rickshaws and selling fruit. Panipat, from where rugs, bedding and other textiles of the wind in U.S. stores Wal-Mart has weavers migrating or working at jobs that now pay 1/18th what they did. According to K. Subrahmanyam in the Times of India 0ctober 28, 2008, many workers in toy factories in China have not only been thrown out of employment, but denied the payment of arrears due to the economic slowdown in the West. Again, according to various estimates, including BYU's own government agency U.S. of job losses and rising unemployment level has generated a strong sense of insecurity among ordinary Americans. Thus, the voice is loud and clear that the crisis not just financial or country of focus, it is global, and has the potential to devastate the lives and livelihoods of up to an average member of humanity in many parts of the world.
Today, an unprecedented global food crisis coexists with the financial crisis and a recession that could become depressed. UTSA Patnaik said: "The domination of finance over industry and the continuation of economic policies promoting financial capital expense growth of the real economy, in particular, with the basic necessities needed by the masses. Dominance of finance in the modern world and known as neo liberalism and shows since 1970. This would call the neo-deflation, ideology Financial capital always involves deflation policies in demand mass. "(People's Democracy-November 3, 2008)
• If it is development or economic recession, the common people of the world are badly affected by globalization.
· When capitalism in crisis, just look for the social intervention of the state. example. lease packages are in vogue in the United States, United Kingdom, Germany and elsewhere. Bearing in mind that when he is in the monstrous growth based on social injustice, the state insists on its control and eliminate interference. crisis control measures shall be taken according to the capitalist profit asylum High Gong established.
From the foregoing it is clear that the globalization process that began in the United States and his love for the 1990s or perhaps a little earlier of a misnomer. The process could not do as a balloon. It remains divided between the developed, wealthy, powerful and rich and poor side with the United States and its unipolarity and allies represent a monopoly of economic power, trade, commerce and the market. The idea that the globalization process to ensure global prosperity, progress, peace and security leading to a complete family or what our ancient period called Vasudeva kutumbakam "As" is missing. The process of globalization has probably sold in the unity of the world, but the unit only in the species and one species namely, "an economy of 'world-economy whose center of gravity of the fulcrum-control mechanism and drainage of its fruit that resides in one place. This type of global economy with global networking largely based on the fundamental ideas of absolute free market capitalism that has led to financial crisis in one place and is the monopoly on the world market, namely States U.S. and, finally, because of its interconnection surrounded almost all nations. Probably affected the richer countries, but has with him a great chance to enter to the livelihoods of poor countries and poor, even in the richest societies.
It's too late this time of day to reverse the cycle of globalization. But also the kind of globalization and free market philosophy and practice can be taught dangerous not only for countries poor but also to their own superpower. The anger and the nature of the situation of civil unrest in the United States as a result Fusion is the testimony. The type of globalization practiced today for some time led to prosperity is largely misleading results culture of consumerism, selfishness, excessivism, the greed, lust and the total loss of ethics and values – is not just a failure of fiscal policy. The fight against these threats of globalization is currently practiced and turning to serve the cause of humanity and welfare is a complex and multidimensional. It requires the replacement of the word monopoly, isolation and present a consensus other world, global cooperation and global concerns for humanity. Of course, requires the development of new types of mechanism under the regulatory oversight institutional structures to ensure that represent the collective wisdom and collective consensus, unlike the institutions * Bretton Woods Institutions (IMF, WB, etc) Today, you can manipulate the arm twisting. It reminds us to meet ASEM Dr.Manmohan sigh, said: "The sad truth is that in this era of globalization, we have a global economy in a way, but it is not supported by a global polity to provide effective government. "Speaking on the same line of the European Commission José Barroso said, "We are at a time when we need global teamwork, either stick together or sink together." So, in short, what we stand for is an example of global cooperation for an international economic order based on global consensus that operates on principles of equity, justice and distributive justice serves the cause for the welfare, peace and security to each member of the global community.
V
What do?
The State, as an institution need to ensure the welfare and social justice for marginalized groups. Globalization has not only threatened, but also small. State fell back from its role of social protection. In the current context, the social justice agenda with the support of NSA that are critical. The old theories of social justice, which are ineffective or unenforceable, today can not cover the new developments that have occurred in the era of globalization and therefore should be examined. Whether or not you see globalization as a positive or negative trend, which has led to increased interdependence of markets world economy leads to greater economic distance between rich and poor of all nations. While developing the richest wealth at a pace even faster, the poor are desperate to survive.
Evolution of global consensus on the nature of the globalization process and wishing mechanism effective regulation, changes in the institutional structure that is transparent and democratic in contravention of this Bretton Woods, where decision making remains not transparent and controlled by a few powerful nations and the security market so that their behavior accountable to society is so simple. It is a complex issue that requires commitment not only states only the most basic, essential, but it also requires the commitment of political experiences, social expectations and economic impacts of different societies and the evolution of a sensitive and thoughtful consideration of citizens and citizens of the world in Local. In such short consensus should be changed to a common understanding and a common approach to the order of the new international economy between all stakeholders. In fact, this type commitment of political leaders to professionals, universities and volunteer groups that led the institutionalization of the EU, which at first seemed an reality. In fact, it is through this kind of commitment that consensus on issues such as the common currency, a common passport, a common market, common recruitment human rights mechanism could be found.
It is likely that demand new knowledge base, different types of professional approach to address social policy issues, legal and economic in nature, and the more dynamic and sensitive to world opinion as Local.
Some of the proposals aimed at ensuring social justice:
° Equal and Trade is not fair and free trade
• Education, health care, social protection should not be in the market.
• We need to make TNCs accountable for their actions around the world.
ΠIt is very necessary to cancel third world debt, and reduce the power of the World Bank and IMF.
Πvictories had already overcome major multilateral agreement on investment. The value of the agricultural division Monsanto has been reduced to zero dollars, because people accept genetically modified foods and products. National coalitions are growing.
• The economic and political spheres of society must be subordinated to human development.
• The consumption patterns and lifestyles of the population should be changed with reasonable consumption. This can not happen overnight or by decree, but it will be a slow process of education, and in this, the government must play a role important. The state's role is to establish standards for the health of consumers of the disease and consumption indifferent. We need a humanistic science of man as a base for science applied arts and social reconstruction.
· Production should be done for reasons of sound production.
· A concerted effort to stimulate the appetite for consumption insurance is likely to change consumption patterns.
• The production used in place the gain should be motto of the government.
· Activity of movement of consumers who use the threat of strikes consumption
as a weapon. 20% of consumers can do wonders. The great advantage of the strike is that consumers do not require government action. Achieving power is essential. It may be a manifestation of true democracy.
Bureaucratic control block · forcing consumption should make people even more consumption hunger.
• The value of other products and services to be determined by a panel of psychologists, anthropologists, sociologists, philosophers, theologians and representatives of various social groups and consumers.
• The industrial democracy means that each member of a large industrial organization or another plays an active role and participate in making decisions.
• The government can greatly facilitate the learning process through the grant production of desirable goods and services until they can be produced profitably. An extensive education campaign in favor of consumption, even accompanied these efforts.
· Democracy passer must be changed in active participatory democracy. Political life requires maximum decentralization through industrial policy.
• Participation active and responsible management also requires that the humanist to replace bureaucratic management. The implementation of the new company and the new man is only possible if the motives of the old profit and power are replaced by new ones. Being, sharing, understanding, if the character is replaced by the productive nature of love marketing, cyber If religion is replaced by the new humanistic spirit radical.
· All brainwashing methods in advertising and industrial policies should be banned.
ΠIt is an urgent need to reform institutional arrangements Рin addition to national events Рin order to overcome errors of omission and those of the Commission, which tends to poor throughout the world as limited opportunities.
VI
How do?
Strong political movements must build on the process of class struggle must be conducted in each country. Like Hugo Chavez: "It can not be simple protest and celebration like Woodstock .. It is a huge struggle, an effort that the organization and coordination are key. "Such is the challenge of intelligence and activists international.
References:
Amartya Sen, "How globalization Judge, "The American Prospect, vol. 13 n º 1. January 14, 2002.
Erich Fromm (1981) "having or being, Bantham Books, New York.
Friedrich Hayek Representative Government and Economic Freedom (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1976).
George Soros on Globalization "Public Affairs, New York, 2002.
Giddens, A. (1990) "The consequences of modernity." Stanford: Stanford University Press.
Habermas (2001) " postnational constellation: political essays, translated and edited by Max Pensky. MIT Press.
Held, D. McGrew, A., Goldblatt and Perraton, J. (1999) D. global transformations – political, Economy and Culture, Cambridge: Polity Press.
Joseph E. Stiglitz (2003). WW Norton, WW Norton Company, New York.
_______________. (2007) Making Globalization Work, WW Norton Company, New York, 2007.
N. (2001) "No Logo" Klein London: Flamingo.
Kellner, D. (1997) "Globalization and postmodern Tour "UCLA
Sam Gindin, Anti-capitalism and social justice field "Monthly Review, February 2002.
Smith, MK and Smith, M. (2002) "Globalization: Encyclopedia of NFE www.infed.org / Library / Globalization.htm.
Strange, Susan. (1996) "The withdrawal of the state: the diffusion of power in the economy World, Cambridge University Press.
• The Bretton Woods institutions are the World Bank and the IMF (IMF). They established at a meeting of 43 countries in Bretton Woods, New Hampshire, USA in July 1944. Its aim was to help rebuild the shattered economy after the war and promote international economic cooperation. The original Bretton Woods agreement also includes plans for a World Trade Organization (WTO), but are inactive until the World Trade Organization (WTO) was established in the 1990s.
About the Author
Dr.R.Murali
Head
Department of Philosophy and Center for Philosophical Research
The Madura College(Autonomous)
Madurai-11 TAMILNADU, INDIA
Richard Norton Smith on Calvin Coolidge (2 of 
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