criminological theories and their applications

Introduction

Criminology is a body of knowledge that deals of crimes as a social phenomenon. criminological theories are important in understanding crime. The latter term includes all matters involving to break the law, the right decision and the reactions to the process of breaking these laws. There is a unified sequence that is created by the previous process. Criminology is also defined as the process of studying the causes, nature and extent of the law breaking behavior. Given all these questions, then criminiology covers all the arrangements of society, group roles, structural problems in society and other dynamics affecting this group.

History and Definition of criminological theories

and choice theory Classic

This school of thought began as early as the eighteenth century. One of the most notable related to the classical school at the time of Cesare Beccaria. Their work and the work of criminologists influenced many other criminal justice systems as we know it today. Conventional theories have been put aside for a few years but this was later changed after the neo-classic began in the eighties. At this stage, criminologists have begun to adopt positivism in their explanations, while others have also begun covering the structural influences.

There are three main ideas that govern traditional schools of thought and which are as follows

• The people the freedom to choose
• The ability to control election
• The certainty, speed and severity of punishment

The first item listed above is based on the fact that all human beings Humans have the ability to make decisions about their lives. This means they will have the freedom to be greedy, envious, thrill seekers, vain, lustful, needy, angry, vengeful, etc. Therefore, most of the latter behaviors are mere indications of the free will of these people. (Siegel, 2004)

Second, the classical theory is based on the premise of all have the ability to control those decisions. In other words, when people fear the risk of punishment, then they can control their criminal tendencies. Humans have the ability to analyze situations in terms of its potential positive and negative. If the risks related to engage in certain behaviors are much less important than profits, then a person may have committed this crime.

Third, the classical school of thought is based on the speed of gravity and certainty of punishment. According to these thinkers, when the characteristics of these are present in all societies, then potential criminals may be deterred from continuing their criminal intentions. Where the sentence is carried out fairly, it is likely to reinforce belief about the latest crime. We consider the sentence as an incentive to obey the law. Therefore, if given a rational and legitimate, which certainly can prevent crime. (Cook, 2005)

In general, the interpretation of these three basic ideas has led to different responses and different results especially when applies to case studies. Therefore, it is important to appreciate that the context of a particular topic to understand the crime. In this regard, a number of theories of choice exist in the field of criminology. For example, some people use rational choice theory as a basis for understanding crime. Some prefer to use the theory of situational crime prevention, the theory of sanctions and all theories of deterrence considered forms of classical thought. In the above, the theory of routine activities is based on the conviction for the crime to occur, there must be three points that include a suitable target, a potential offender and guardian absent or incapacitated.

In the classical school of thought, individuals must be motivated to commit crimes for the availability of an opportunity. In practice, classical theories are important to understanding the victimization as well. Demographics and lifestyle are important predictors of victimization (the process by which victims and offenders come into contact with each other). Many researchers have found that aspects such as being male, single, active living and support bars can have a significant influence on the occurrence of crime. It should be noted however, that the classical school of thought is not entirely based on demographic factors as these are important predictors of the occurrence of crime. Although some of these theories may not benefit as of right, are as important as theories in the full understanding of crime. (Pearce, 2003)

The rational choice theory is based on the premise that offenders are the ability to use intelligent thinking during the commission of crimes. In other words, social behavior is an aggregation of a series of behaviors that are affected and directed by rational individuals. This means that potential offenders are the actors who are affected by certain values and beliefs in society. Moreover, these actors in general, to calculate the benefits or costs of taking any action, then take the decision to commit the act, it is likely to maximize profits or the process of general utility. In the theory of rational choice, we must also consider the effect that the environment has on their decision process.

Here, there is an assumption that all criminals are well aware of their value systems and ways to develop these courses of action. It is therefore necessary that the agents or potential criminals first gather and organize and analyze this information to find viable alternatives. The rational choice theory is based on the concept of means and ends. In other words, the theory offers a way of describing how criminals are able to achieve certain purposes by means of rational calculation.

You must also take into account the rational choice theory refers to methodological individualism. In other words, people should consider their options themselves. This thought process rational is what leads to the whole society. Therefore, the theory is constructed from the individual and then added to the whole society. The theory of rational choice presents researchers with a number of challenges. First is that most of the variables are in this theory are difficult to quantify. One example is a delinquent potential. This variable is based on the appearance crime is a crime even personality trait in itself is a fact. The relevance of the objectives is another difficult term define because most criminals portray this look different depending on the demographics and the environment.

Other criminologists argue that the theory is the best prevention techniques. This is because it helps explain the following three d's of crime

• Detect
• Delay
• Deter

When you are really interested in details about the exact location where the crime was committed, can be more difficult. In addition, it is also very difficult to understand exactly when a crime. The emergence of the conditions of a crime can also be difficult to determine through rational choice theory. (Schmalleger, 2005)

Other experts have also argued that the choice theory sound may not be adequate to explain all criminal proceedings the fact that it is more appropriate to confirm that the action was committed instead to forge. These critics also argue that the magnitude of the effects of variables theories are not well defined. This is consistent with the excessive dependence of the variables that can not be met or measured. Finally, critics say the theory is not particularly useful because it is a kind of post hoc theory.

The classical school of thought has been very influential in the criminal justice system, some of the policies that affect offenders are based on them. Examples of these policies include the firm policy saturation measurements obtained by the police and the crime of the police in the areas of potential. deterrence strategies is based largely on this concept, and so embarrassing rituals out offenders. (Pearce, 2003)

Note that the choice theory and the renunciation of strongly criticizes the use of rehabilitation as a way to enforce the law. These theorists believe that some criminals are quite cold and hard, and it would be a waste of time and resources to try to rehabilitate them. The adherents of this principle is likely to understand that the only way to fight crime is to separate the innocent against evil.

Strain theory

The restraint theory underlying the fact that certain social structures force people to commit crimes. theories of stress was first reported by many renowned criminologist Emile Durkheim. Subsequently, they were presented by Robert Merton in the thirties, and was followed by Cohen in the mid-fifties. Cloward and Ohlin did some more work on the theory and its efforts have been supported by Rosenfeld and Messner.

According to these theories, the tension can be made available to the structural institutions. These refer to processes in society that could be transmitted by actors who make up society. Subsequently, most of them begin to collect the structural requirements of these institutions. A criminal perceived opportunities and threats defined by the level of regulation or distribution of a given social structure.

Limitation theory is also based on the premise that the person is the person who requires a lot of friction and difficulties in trying to achieve company goals and expectations. Sometimes when these expectations are so important to the individual, he or she may consider undertaking any way, without serious consideration of the legitimacy of the means to achieve it.

By way of Durkheim's anomie, tried to explain why some people may choose to commit suicide. In his book, Durkheim argues that this happens when people lose their sense of purpose, or when they feel left apart by society. In addition, this sentiment is generally linked to the lack of values in an individual.

Dubois also made a independent work on the theory of strain and found that most people commit crimes because of the stress experienced in their environment. He confirmed this through a study of crime in the Afro-American of the nineteenth century. At that time, the company has experienced radical changes in the political system that increases the level of expectations in this group. Most of them have been affected by these and therefore found to commit crimes to get their media. (Schmalleger, 2005)

Also should be noted that the theory of constraint can be tested by the appearance of functional or structural appearance. On the structural side, it becomes emphasis on how things work, here we examine the nature of a crime or is committing a criminal action with a look at the links between these aspects and interdependence of these variables. Moreover, the functional explanation is based on the premise that certain structural features are part of an overall system. That's why things happen as they do. Social systems are often based on the sections which contain and when a party fails to comply with these functions, which then leads to stress. If this tension continues for a long time, then it is likely that all the system can fail.

Robert Merton has been very influential in the theory, they provide an avenue for the understanding of crime by the strain. Merton said there are two main ways in which individuals can be brought to the crime. The first is a cultural expectation and opportunities related to the preconditions for achieving this goal. Merton study was carried out at a time when people move to the U.S. under the "American dream." He argues that many of them found it was not as easy as they thought. Merton noted that there was a gap between cultural expectations, social, and to do so. This change was what was called anomie. He believes that some people chose to engage in criminal behavior as a result the tension created between their aspirations and opportunities offered or respond to these expectations. That's why crime is more common in lower social classes in higher because many people do not have opportunities to achieve social objectives, and finally elected to the commission for improper motives. (Pearce, 2003)

Usually, these people can lose their sense of motivation and may be frustrated. In addition, the company creates a situation in which they live anomie too winners rather than reward those who had the courage of competition. What creates a situation in which members of society has no clear method of forecasting or that can be used to define success and is considered the degree of cultural anomie or chaos

the theory of cultural deviance

One of the pioneers who has been very useful in explaining the process of cultural deviance theory was Albert Cohen. Criminologist focused on delinquent behavior among children in London society EPF. In this study, it could happen to crime subculture phenomenon. His major concern in the theory has been the emergence innovative adaptation. He said young people do not work in isolation most of them are influenced by the world around them. Therefore, identifying and understand the characteristics of these cultures, remember how we deal with certain issues.

The first appearance of a criminal subculture is its non-utilitarian thereof. In this sense, young offenders to participate in the crime just so they can entertain and amuse. In addition, the criminal subculture is characterized by a level of malice where such groups only want to cause problems. In addition, many delinquent subcultures have a lot of negativity. In other words, they tend to deny the standards of other cultures, such as the middle class and perceived this challenge as usual.

delinquent subcultures are also characterized by the presence of hedonism as a need for immediate self gratification. autonomy of the group also plays an important role in this case because most of these criminals in general considered the authority of the groups as the only and any other source has been challenged. (Schmalleger, 2005)

It is also important to note that Cohen has found that young offenders have been frustrated with the values of the middle class and, therefore, have rebelled against these feelings through the use of crime.

Walter Miller, the other focused on another approach of cultural theory diverted. It has more of its research among men of lower classes in Boston. He argues that the unlawful conduct has not been purchased by the values of another group, but instead saw it as a reflection of lower-class culture. It is estimated that the values of the middle class has been overestimated in the theory of Cohen. He also said that the middle class, some values were considered more important than others. However, the lower class was governed by rules different. Ultimately, this led to clashes between the two groups and can create conflicts between the two categories or classes. In the lower class, the values revolve around survival. Therefore, in the process of achieving these values, young people find that they engage in criminal behavior to achieve them.

process social theories

In the social process, the theory emphasizes the micro aspects of the macro. This is different from all theories mentioned here because the focus is on the role of the individual and how it affects society and not vice versa. One theory is the social process of Sutherland differential association theory. In this theory, learning is supposed to take place after the process of socialization. In other words, individuals have the option whether to accept or reject social norms. This is different from the old theories mentioned (structural theories) that focuses on the company's ability to impose its standards and values on others without taking into account their preferences. (Pearce, 2003)

Another feature emerging theories in the social process is the fact that criminal activity may participate in all social classes and there is little emphasis on a particular group. Another theory of social processes which must be taken into account is the social control theory. With this theory, is able to understand that crime can not be imposed by the process of the existence of EPF controlled. In the theory of containment, presumably no individual is forced to commit a crime and in fact may be committed by someone. The labeling theory, individuals are forced to commit more crimes when they were labeled as criminals by society itself.

Another theory is the social process of social theory and development. Here, an individual is a part their interaction with their respective environments, and this can be understood through the integration of all biological, psychological and sociological factors at play in the life of an individual. At a time ordered theory asserts that crime is likely to occur when there is a change that occurred at a certain age in a person's life. People address this anomaly in criminal behavior. Finally, the theory of dual taxonomy revolves around the fact that neuropsychological factors can make individuals more prone to crime. In this theory, the considerations are also other contributing factors such as poverty as factors in the occurrence of crime. (Cook, 2005)

In general, it should be noted that most crimes occur generally as a result of specific options that individuals make in the process, either accept or reject a social norm.

Marxist criminology

The Marxist school of thought revolves around the reasons for change. Furthermore, also stresses the identification of destructive forces in a given society. It also seeks the means by which divides a society where the forces of wealth, power and for prestige. Through these mechanisms, it is possible to understand why some people behave the way do so.

In Marxist Criminology, much consideration is given to the relationship between crime and society, ie, it is necessary to address the environmental structural and social immediacy that could spread offense. In this sense, Karl Marx believed that the upper class used the law to impose their own rules to lower class so they can remain in these positions at a disadvantage. Here, one can understand why some acts are crimes and why others do not. This means that the theory is best for understanding of crimes of state enterprises, state crime and crime policy.

While the relevance of the Marxist school of thought has fallen in recent decades, we can not undermine the influence this theory has in the field of criminology. Marxist criminology assumes that economic power translates into another form of power that political power. Economic order, the majority of society namely, those without economic power are helpless and causes of speech. (Schmalleger, 2005)

In Marxism, the performance is created through socialization. Compliance is an important element of society, and ensuring social order. Here, the law is the methodology used to enforce the state's interests. In other words, given that all states operate under their own rules, then it is possible to impose any rules. It should be noted here that small groups always come out as leaders, regardless of whether the system of government if democratic or autocratic. The reason for the emergence of groups in a given society is that there is a need for decision makers everywhere. Therefore, society is forced to deal with influences brought by the ruling class. In other words, the modern state is governed and influenced heavily by those who control the means of production. Examples of how this can be represented in the colonial law in the colonial states, such as East Africa. British laws created to assist them in the process of obtaining reports coffee bananas.

property laws are generally set up so that they can benefit from the ruling class, these laws marginalize the lower classes and are forced to seek other means of survival for others through the process of understanding these underlying issues. Most of them resort to crime as a last alternative for survival. Proponents of this theory to compare the two continents: Europe and North America. They argue that Europe is more socialist law and why the crime rate is very low. However, the United States, crime rates have reached unprecedented levels due to lack of effective mechanisms that could help in the process of understanding of this problem

School Marxist thought revolves around the issue of social isolation. Therefore, it has also been used to understand why some crimes occur Labour crimes. When the company offers an individual work is considered degrading or work which does not require creativity or decisions, individuals must be boring. Over time, some members of the working group to choose to engage in corporate crime in order to challenge such of oppression in the workplace.

The application of theories to case studies

If the runner Wall Street

The classical theories can be applied to this situation in order to understand this last question. Wall Street Corridor considered the cost of inside information (eg, unethical behavior will be stopped or canceled) against the benefits arising from the commission of the crime. The advantage would be five million dollars short. In addition, punishment is not true, because if you run well, corporate crime is difficult to detect. Since sentence was not sure, it might have spread to the individual committing the crime. (Schmalleger, 2005)

The theory of constraint is also very important in understanding the decisions of the agent to commit corporate crime. This person lives in a society that values the winners or people who appear financial success. It is likely that legal avenues to deliver the high level of financial success are minimal, as it may take a long time. Therefore, there was anarchy to meet society's expectations related to financial success and the measures available to achieve this. Ultimately, opted to use a shortcut to meet these expectations.

Cultural theory states that deviant individuals are likely to engage in certain forms of behavior due to the fact that there are certain rules that society creates the middle class. Therefore, in order to challenge these rules, then it is likely to engage in criminal behavior. The Securities dealer rebelled against society's expectations of him.

Social process theories focus on the ability of the Securities broker decide for yourself what you want to commit a crime some. Control theory applies here, as expectations of monetary gain society have been able to control their actions and made him commit a crime. (Schmalleger, 2005)

The Marxist school of thought individuals commit crimes because they are trying to respond to degrading work or work which involves a minimum creativity. This theory may be the most hard to try to understand why this crime was committed. The dealer may have committed the crime as a form questions the oppressive nature of their work even after receiving scores of one of the most prestigious educational institutions worldwide.

The suburban school girl

The classic choice theories focus on the benefits that have everything to gain by the cost or negative they have to endure. In this case, the girl wanted to finish high school and go: this are the benefits of crime. Moreover, deterrence is that it can be discarded as a member of decent society. Since the punishment in this case was not serious, it could have pushed her away.

The theory of stress helps us understand the situation. Company expects to complete his education to get a good job and live comfortably. To do this, you must pay your tuition and find time to read books. Post that profits are at stake, could be labeled a pariah just so you can respond to this expectation. The tension between these two issues caused them to commit crimes to become a social prostitute.

The theory of deviant culture can also be applied in this situation. The girls call comes from a family of class half, but she chooses to rebel against the expectations of this class to participate in socially unacceptable behavior. The rebellion spread by the fact that it is failing expectations of society through the channels, decided to rebel by seeking others. (Cook, 2005)

social process theories also apply the scenario that has the ability to decide for itself if you commit a crime and why he chose this way to go. Marxist criminology can also be applied in this case because the drivers have provided the capital that girl with very limited routes to meet their obligations. To survive, you have to resort to socially inadequate and through maid called to do. The theory most applicable in this case study is the theory of coercion.

Hispanic Men

The classical school of thought to explain the decisions of this boy to join a gang if the aspect of prayer. In this district, law enforcement are not careful, therefore, punishment is not true, may be delayed or not be serious. The benefits of joining the band clued protect their lives and make money. Sine this guy has very few options that may help meet basic needs hello, then weigh the benefits of deterrence against these crimes and believes that gangs would be more advantageous for him. Working closely with this theory is the theory of coercion. There anomie between meeting basic needs as food, clothing and the means available to achieve them. Hispanic Men probably have little access to education that makes it very difficult for him to follow his dreams through legal channels. Anomia structural aspects of these cases to commit crimes.

The cultural deviance theory is more applicable in this If the child study because Hispanics could act against the rules of the middle class, who has been to acquire through certain channels, such as work or education. Closely related are the theories social processes in the theory of neutralization would be more applicable

Marxist theory applies also in this situation because the drivers of wealth have created a situation where the child has no other mechanism to make a living, because the former groups have limited options.

Male student

The violation can be explained by classical theory that a person has chosen to pursue this because there is little chance of being caught, if applied in the context of a date. He chooses to participate in the act because they do not want to undergo a long process of relationship normal. The benefits are greater than the punishment and therefore the incentive to continue. Restriction theory says the company expects certain things private. In this case, is supposed to have sex only with the consent of both parties. However, to do this, the student may be forced to spend much time on a certain lady. Therefore, it is a strain and chose to rape victims, to respond to this strain. (Schmalleger, 2005)

The theory of culture can also be diverted applicable in that it can act of their delinquent peers. These partners can act against his own class through rape. The social process that the theory applies control helps to understand the behavior of the undergraduate college. Finally, Marxism is also applicable here, since they could try to describe the sign of power between partners. But to do this, we have the condition that only applies to the drivers in the capital. Reacting this situation, chose to rebel for rape.

Conclusion

criminological theories are applicable in the stable case. However, some theories seem to excel of others which makes it relatively easy to treat the root causes of crime through these outstanding individuals.

Reference

Siegel, L. (2004) Criminological Theories, models and typologies, CA, Wadsworth Publication Company

Pearce, F. (2003): crimes of the powerful, Peter Lang Publishing Company

Cook, D. (2005): Theories vs. Social Process Theories Routledge structural social

Schmalleger, F. (2005): Today, criminology, an integrated approach, McGraw Hill publishers

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